最流行时尚的波西米亚风----快来看看吧！~~~~~/
英语语言学
一、绪论
语言学的定义
语言学的研究范畴
几对基本概念
语言的定义
语言的甄别特征What is linguistics?
什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study
of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages
in general.
语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The spe of linguistics
语言学研究的范畴Phoics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied
linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive
规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes
the language people actually use.
Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “rrect” behavior.
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based
on authentic, and mainly spoken data.
Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high”
written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic
共时性与历史性The description of a language at me point in time is a
synchronic study
The description of a language as it changes through time is a
diachronic study
In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority
over diachronic study.Speech and writing
口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern
linguistics study for the following reans:
(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
(2) a large amount of munication is carried out in speech tan in
writing
(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native
languageLanguage and parole
语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared
by all the members of a speech munity
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual
useCompetence and performance
能力与运用
Chomsky defines petence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the
rules of his language
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in
linguistic municationWhat is language?
什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for
human munication
Characteristics of language: 语言的特性
Language is a rule-governed system
Language is basically vocal
Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have
different words for the same object is a good illustration of the
arbitrary nature of language. This nventional nature of language is
well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play
“Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as
sweet.”)
Language is used for human munication
Design features of language
语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design
features:
1) arbitrariness 武断性
2) productivity 创造性
3) duality 二重性
4) displacement移位性
5) cultural transmission 文化传递性
二、音系学
语言的声音媒介
什么是语音学
发音器官
音标……宽式和严式标音法
英语语音的分类
音系学和语音学
语音、音位、音位变体
音位对立、互补分部、最小对立
几条音系规则
超切分特征Two major media of munication: speech and writingThe limited range of unds which are meaningful in human
munication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic
medium of language.
用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phoics语音学: is
defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is
ncerned with all the unds that occur in the world’s language.
Three branches of phoics : articulatory phoics
发音语音学(most highly developed), auditory phoics 听觉语音学and austic
phoics 声学语音学Organs of speech
发音器官The articulatory apparatus of a human being are ntained
in three important areas or cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity咽腔----the throat
The oral cavity口腔----the mouth
The nasal cavity 鼻腔---the nose
Vibration of the vocal rds (声带) results in a quality of speech
unds called “voicing” 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and me
nnants 辅音。单词补充：01) velum: The ft palate. 软腭
02) uvula: A small, nical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from
the center of the ft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中心的小的圆锥状肉块
03) larynx: n. 喉
04) vocal rd: 声带
05) membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue vering su***ces
or separating or nnecting regions, structures, or organs of an
animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官
06) the ft palate: 软腭
07) the hard palate: 硬腭
08) the teeth ridge: 齿龈
09) alveolus: A tooth cket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
10) the teeth: 牙齿
11) the lips: 上下唇
12) blade of tongue: 舌面
13) back of tongue: 舌根
14) pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
15) nasal cavity: 鼻腔
16) velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or
near the ft palate, as (g) in good and (k) in
cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的(g)以及在 cup中的(k)
17) the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
18) the upper front teeth: 上齿
19) the roof of the mouth: 上颚
20) the lower lip: 下唇音标……宽式和严式标音法International Phoic Alphabet (IPA)
The vowels (monophthongs and diphthongs)
元音(单元音&双元音)
The nstants 辅音Broad transcription: transcription with
letter-symbols only. (in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)
用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。俞敏洪经典语录Narrow transcription: the transcription with
diacritics.
但实际上，同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
在宽式标音的基础上，
再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。Classification of English speech unds英语语音的分类
The basic difference between a vowel and a nstant is that in the
pronunciation of the former the air that es from the lungs meets
with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the
mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or
another.
Classification of English nstants
英语辅音分类
Classification of English vowels:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度
:the shape of the lips园唇与否
:length of the vowels元音的长度
Phonology and phoics
音系学和语音学Phoics is of a general nature; it is interested
in all the speech unds used in all human languages.
语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，策划书格式旨在对语音进行描述和分类。Phonology is interested in the system of unds
of a particular language; it aims to disver how speech unds in a
language form patterns and how these unds are used to nvey meaning
in linguistic munication.
音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。
Phone，phoneme and
allophone语音，音位，音位变体Phones, which can be simply defined as the
speech unds we use when speaking a language.
语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。Phonology is ncerned with the speech unds which
distinguish meaning.
音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。
The different which can represent a phoneme in different phoic
environments are called the allophones of that
phoneme.
音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。
Phonemic ntrast, plementary distribution, and minimal
pair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same
environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in
phonemic ntrast.可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止，
产生意义差别http://book.100baby.info/。
/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to
be in plementary distribution.When two different forms are identical in every way
except for one und segment which occurs in the same place in the
strings, the two words are said to form a minimal
pair. [pen] and [ben]
最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in
phonology几条音系规则Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is
possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
Assimilation rules 同化规则
Deletion rule 省略规则
Sign, design, there is no {g} und
Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal
nstant.Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone,
intonation超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调
the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments
are called suprasegmental features;
超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。
三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学 请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。
语素：语言最小的意义单位
语素的类型
复合词的类型
复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies
the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are
formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional
morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.
形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of
language.
语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can
stand by itimmolation. (independent)
自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that
cannot stand by itimmolation.
粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root
(2)Affix(词缀)
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes):
affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical
relationships are inflectional
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀) A) prefix: A prefix es before words.
B)suffix
An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever
classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.
free=free root(自由词根)
Morpheme(词素)
Bound root prefix
bound derivational
affix suffix
inflectional
Root and stem(词根和词干)
1) Root 2) Stem
The differences between root and stem:
A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further
analyzed without total loss of identity.
A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional
morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further
analyzed, it metimes uld be a root.
Individualistic Undesirables
Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem)
Individual (stem) desirable (stem)
dividual (stem) desire (root, stem)
divide(root, stem)
Affixation词缀法(Derivation派生法)：adding word-formation or
derivational affixes to stem.
Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by
adding a prefixes to stems.
1)'表示否定'nagative prefixes:
un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.
2)''reversative or privative
prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.
3)'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes:
mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.
4)'表示程度'degree or size prefixes:
arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.
5)'表示方向、态度'orientation
& attitude prefixes:unter-,ntra-,anti-,pro-
etc.
6)locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.
7)'表示时间、次序'time and order
prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.
8)'表示数目'number
prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.
9)'混杂'miscellaneous
prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word
by adding suffixes to stems.
1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb
suffixes
Compounding复正当 (al called position)
Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more
stems
Formation of pounds
Noun + noun(名词＋名词) ――― handbook, sunshine
Adjective + noun(形容词＋名词)―――highway, deadline
Adjective + noun + -ed(形容词＋名词＋ed)―――white-haired, red-eyed
Verb + noun(动词＋名词)―――driveway, breakwater(挡水板)
Adverb + noun(副词＋名词)―――downtown, overburden
Noun + verb(名词＋动词)―――toothpick, snowfall
Verb + adverb(动词＋副词)―――follow-up, kick-off
Noun + adjective(名词＋形容词)―――world-famous, lifelong
-ing form + noun(ing+名词)―――baking power, dining-room
other forms(其他)―――go-between, father-in-law
Features of pounds复合词的特征
1.Orthographically书写特征
(Compounds are written in three ways: lid(airmail)
hyphenated(air-nditioning) open(air force, air raid)
2.Syntactically句法特征(复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性)
3.Semantically语义特征(复合词的意义具有习语性质，很多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和)
4.Phoically语音特征(复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上)
四、句法学
句子的构成
句子的类型
句子的线性排列与层次结构
词类
词组类
短语结构规则
短语结构 规则的循环性
X标杆理论
名词词组移位与WH移位
其他类型的移位
深层结构与表层结构
移动a规则
普遍语法原则
普遍语法参数
Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence
structure of language.
As a major ponent of grammar, syntax nsists of a set of abstract
rules that allow words to be bined with other words to form
grammatical sentences.
句法是一个由一套数目有限的抽象规则组成的系统。
Normally a sentence nsists of at least a subject and its
predicate which ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。
The referring expression is grammatically called subject.
主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。
Types of sentences句子的类型
The *** sentence: nsists of a single clause which ntains a
subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own
sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子
The ordinate sentence: ntains two clauses joined by a linking
word called ordinating njunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分
The plex sentence: ntains two, or more, clauses, one of which is
inrporated into the other.
The two clauses in a plex sentence hold unequal status, one
subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。
The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences
句子的线性排列与层次结构
The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or
written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after
another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看，
所含的次都按线性次序排列。(表面上的排列)
The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized
with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun
phrase(NP),or verb phrase (VP), grouped together.
句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。
Tree diagrams of sentence structure
S
NP VP
V S
NP VP
V NP
John suggested (that)Mary take the linguistics class.
The points at which the tree branches at various levels are
called branching nodes.(分节点)
Syntactic categories 句法类型
Words and phrases are organized acrding to the syntactic
categories they belong to.
Lexical categories 词类
Major Lexical Categories主要词类
Noun(N)\ Verb(V)\Adjective(Adj)\Adverb(Adv) 名词、动词、形容词、副词
Minor Lexical Categories
Determiner(Det)\Auxiliary(Aux)\Preposition(Prep)\Pronoun(Pron)\Conjunction(Conj)\Interjection(Int)限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词
Phrasal categories词组类
Noun phrase (NP)\Verb phrase (VP)\Prepositional
phrase(PP)\Adjective phrase(AP)
名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语
Grammatical relations 语法关系
Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction
between the structural and logical functional relations of
nstituents called grammatical relations.
语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。
The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语
The logic subject (the doer of the action) and the logical object
(the recipient of the action)
逻辑主语(行动的执行者)与逻辑宾语(行动的接受者)
Combinational rules 组合规则
Phrase structure rules(rewrite rule)短语结构规则
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
NP—Det N (a/the man)
NP---Det Adj N PP S(the tall man with glasses that I met)
The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性
These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and
sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive
properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无穷循环地组合起来。
